Embedded Systems Architecture

The field of embedded systems is wide and varied, and it is difficult to pin down exact definitions or descriptions. However, Chapter 1 introduces a useful model that can be applied to any embedded system. This model is introduced as a means for the reader to understand the major components that make up different types of electronic devices, regardless of their complexity or differences. Chapter 2 introduces and defines the common standards adhered to when building an embedded system. Because this book is an overview of embedded systems architecture, covering every possible standards-based component that could be implemented is beyond its scope. Therefore, significant examples of current standards-based components were selected, such as networking and Java, to demonstrate how standards define major components in an embedded system. The intention is for the reader to be able to use the methodology behind the model, standards, and real-world examples to understand any embedded system, and to be able to apply any other standard to an embedded system's design.

 

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Analog Circuit Design

RF Circuits: Wide band, Front-Ends, DAC's, Design Methodology and Verification for RF and Mixed-Signal Systems, Low Power and Low Voltage.

 

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Understanding TCP/IP

Chapter 1 contains a general introduction to computer networks. The ISO OSI model is mentioned and compared with the TCP/IP protocol family.

Chapter 2 acquaints the reader with the basics of network sniffing. Network sniffing is demonstrated with the help of two tools: MS Network Monitor and Ethereal. We use network sniffing as our basic means to clarify principles of particular protocols.

Chapter 3 deals with the physical layer. Concretely, it deals with serial lines, modems, ISDN, and LAN.

Chapter 4 deals with a link layer. It describes the SLIP, CSLIP, PPP, FrameRelay, Ethernet, WiFi (IEEE 802.11), and FWA protocols.

Chapter 5 describes the Internet Protocol (IP) including ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP protocols.

Chapter 6 clarifies the meaning of an IP address and a network mask. It also emphasizes the historical process by which the meaning of the term IP network has developed.

Chapter 7 describes the term 'routing', which is, without any doubt, the most complicated area of IP networks. This chapter explains the principles on which particular types of routing protocols are based. However, a detailed description of individual routing protocols is beyond the scope of this publication.

Chapter 8 deals with the new IP generation—the Internet Protocol version 6.

Chapter 9 turns to the TCP protocol.

Chapter 10 describes the little brother of the TCP protocol—the UDP protocol.

Chapter 11 discusses the Domain Name System (DNS), which translates names into IP addresses and vice versa.

Chapter 12 describes the Telnet protocol. It is rarely used today, but because it is often a base of application protocols, we will use it to explain the principles of these application protocols (excluding the LDAP protocol).

Chapter 13 addresses the File Transfer protocol (FTP).

Chapter 14 describes probably the most popular protocol, HTTP.

Chapter 15 deals with electronic mail. It describes the following protocols: SMTP, ESMTP, POP3, IMAP4, and MIME; and even mailing lists are mentioned here.

Chapter 16 describes discussions forums (the NNTP protocol).

Chapter 17 deals with the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP).

Appendix A contains the basic principles of working with CISCO routers for beginners.

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TCP/IP Essentials

The TCP/IP family of protocols have become the de facto standard in the world of networking, are found in virtually all computer communication systems, and form the basis of today's Internet. TCP/IP Essentials is a hands-on guide to TCP/IP technologies, and shows how the protocols operate in practice. The book contains a series of carefully designed and extensively tested laboratory experiments that span the various elements of protocol definition and behavior. Topics covered include bridges, routers, LANs, static and dynamic routing, multicast and real-time service, and network management and security. The experiments are described in a Linux environment, with parallel notes on Solaris implementation. The book includes many exercises, and supplementary material for instructors is available. The book is aimed at students of electrical and computer engineering or computer sciences who are taking courses in networking. It is also an ideal guide for engineers studying for networking certifications.

 

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Guide to Electrical Power Distribution Systems by Anthony J. Pansini

1. The Transmission and Distribution System

2. Conductor Supports

3. Insulators and Conductors

4. Line Equipment

5. Overhead Construction

6. Underground Construction

7. Service Factors

8. Substations

9. Distribution Circuits, Cogeneration and Distributed Generation

10. Essentials of Electricity

Appendix A. Insulation: Porcelain vs. Polymer

Appendix B. Street Lighting, Constant Current Circuitry

Appendix C. The Grid Coordinate System, Tying Maps to Computers

Appendix D. United States and Metric Relationships

Index

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ELECTRIC POWERSYSTEMS, A CONCEPTUAL INTRODUCTION

1. The Physics of Electricity

1.1 Basic Quantities

1.1.1 Introduction

1.1.2 Charge

1.1.3 Potential or Voltage

1.1.4 Ground

1.1.5 Conductivity

1.1.6 Current

1.2 Ohm's law

1.2.1 Resistance

1.2.2 Conductance

1.2.3 Insulation

1.3 Circuit Fundamentals

1.3.1 Static Charge

1.3.2 Electric Circuits

1.3.3 Voltage Drop

1.3.4 Electric Shock

1.4 Resistive Heating

1.4.1 Calculating Resistive Heating

1.4.2 Transmission Voltage and Resistive Losses

1.5 Electric and Magnetic Fields

1.5.1 The Field as a Concept

1.5.2 Electric Fields

1.5.3 Magnetic Fields

1.5.4 Electromagnetic Induction

1.5.5 Electromagnetic Fields and Health Effects

1.5.6 Electromagnetic Radiation

2. Basic Circuit Analysis

2.1 Modeling Circuits

2.2 Series and Parallel Circuits

2.2.1 Resistance in Series

2.2.2 Resistance in Parallel

2.2.3 Network Reduction

2.2.4 Practical Aspects

2.3 Kirchhoff's Laws

2.3.1 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

2.3.2 Kirchhoff's Current Law

2.3.3 Application to Simple Circuits

2.3.4 The Superposition Principle

2.4 Magnetic Circuits

3. AC Power

3.1 Alternating Current and Voltage

3.1.1 Historical Notes

3.1.2 Mathematical Description

3.1.3 The rms Value

3.2 Reactance

3.2.1 Inductance

3.2.2 Capacitance

3.2.3 Impedance

3.2.4 Admittance

3.3 Power

3.3.1 Definition of Electric Power

3.3.2 Complex Power

3.3.3 The Significance of Reactive Power

3.4 Phasor Notation

3.4.1 Phasors as Graphics

3.4.2 Phasors as Exponentials

3.4.3 Operations with Phasors

4. Generators

4.1 The Simple Generator

4.2 The Synchronous Generator

4.2.1 Basic Components and Functioning

4.2.2 Other Design Aspects

4.3 Operational Control of Synchronous Generators

4.3.1 Single Generator: Real Power

4.3.2 Single Generator: Reactive Power

4.3.3 Multiple Generators: Real Power

4.3.4 Multiple Generators: Reactive Power

4.4 Operating Limits

4.5 The Induction Generator

4.5.1 General Characteristics

4.5.2 Electromagnetic Characteristics

4.6 Inverters

5. Loads

5.1 Resistive Loads

5.2 Motors

5.3 Electronic Devices

5.4 Load from the System Perspective

5.4.1 Coincident and Noncoincident Demand

5.4.2 Load Profiles and Load Duration Curve

5.5 Single- and Multiphase Connections

6. Transmission and Distribution

6.1 System Structure

6.1.1 Historical Notes

6.1.2 Structural Features

6.1.3 Sample Diagram

6.1.4 Topology

6.1.5 Loop Flow

6.1.6 Stations and Substations

6.1.7 Reconfiguring the System

6.2 Three-Phase Transmission

6.2.1 Rationale for Three Phases

6.2.2 Balancing Loads

6.2.3 Delta and Wye Connections

6.2.4 Per-Phase Analysis

6.2.5 Three-Phase Power

6.2.6 D.C. Transmission

6.3 Transformers

6.3.1 General Properties

6.3.2 Transformer Heating

6.3.3 Delta and Wye Transformers

6.4 Characteristics of Power Lines

6.4.1 Conductors

6.4.2 Towers, Insulators, and Other Components

6.5 Loading

6.5.1 Thermal Limits

6.5.2 Stability Limit

6.6 Voltage Control

6.7 Protection

6.7.1 Basics of Protection and Protective Devices

6.7.2 Protection Coordination

7. Power Flow Analysis

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Power Flow Problem

7.2.1 Network Representation

7.2.2 Choice of Variables

7.2.3 Types of Buses

7.2.4 Variables for Balancing Real Power

7.2.5 Variables for Balancing Reactive Power

7.2.6 The Slack Bus

7.2.7 Summary of Variables

7.3 Example with Interpretation of Results

7.3.1 Six-Bus Example

7.3.2 Tweaking the Case

7.3.3 Conceptualizing Power Flow

7.4 Power Flow Equations and Solution Methods

7.4.1 Derivation of Power Flow Equations

7.4.2 Solution Methods

7.4.3 Decoupled Power Flow

7.5 Applications and Optimal Power Flow

8. System Performance

8.1 Reliability

8.1.1 Measures of Reliability

8.1.2 Valuation of Reliability

8.2 Security

8.3 Stability

8.3.1 The Concept of Stability

8.3.2 Steady-State Stability

8.3.3 Dynamic Stability

8.3.4 Voltage Stability

8.4 Power Quality

8.4.1 Voltage

8.4.2 Frequency

8.4.3 Waveform

9. System Operation, Management, and New Technology

9.1 Operation and Control on Different Time Scales

9.1.1 The Scale of a Cycle

9.1.2 The Scale of Real-Time Operation

9.1.3 The Scale of Scheduling

9.1.4 The Planning Scale

9.2 New Technology

9.2.1 Storage

9.2.2 Distributed Generation

9.2.3 Automation

9.2.4 FACTS

9.3 Human Factors

9.3.1 Operators and Engineers

9.3.2 Cognitive Representations of Power Systems

9.3.3 Operational Criteria

9.3.4 Implications for Technological Innovation

9.4 Implications for Restructuring

Appendix: Symbols, Units, Abbreviations, and Acronyms

Index

 

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Electric Power distribution handbook

1 Fundamentals of Distribution Systems

1.1 Primary Distribution Configurations

1.2 Urban Networks

1.3 Primary Voltage Levels

1.4 Distribution Substations

1.5 Subtransmission Systems

1.6 Differences between European and North American Systems

1.7 Loads

1.8 The Past and the Future

References

2 Overhead Lines

2.1 Typical Constructions

2.2 Conductor Data

2.3 Line Impedances

2.4 Simplified Line Impedance Calculations

2.5 Line Impedance Tables

2.6 Conductor Sizing

2.7 Ampacities

2.7.1 Neutral Conductor Sizing

2.8 Secondaries

2.9 Fault Withstand Capability

2.9.1 Conductor Annealing

2.9.2 Burndowns

2.10 Other Overhead Issues

2.10.1 Connectors and Splices

2.10.2 Radio Frequency Interference

References

3 Underground Distribution

3.1 Applications

3.1.1 Underground Residential Distribution (URD)

3.1.2 Main Feeders

3.1.3 Urban Systems

3.1.4 Overhead vs. Underground

3.2 Cables

3.2.1 Cable Insulation

3.2.2 Conductors

3.2.3 Neutral or Shield

3.2.4 Semiconducting Shields

3.2.5 Jacket

3.3 Installations and Configurations

3.4 Impedances

3.4.1 Resistance

3.4.2 Impedance Formulas

3.4.3 Impedance Tables

3.4.4 Capacitance

3.5 Ampacity

3.6 Fault Withstand Capability

3.7 Cable Reliability

3.7.1 Water Trees

3.7.2 Other Failure Modes

3.7.3 Failure Statistics

3.8 Cable Testing

3.9 Fault Location

References

4 Transformers

4.1 Basics

4.2 Distribution Transformers

4.3 Single-Phase Transformers

4.4 Three-Phase Transformers

4.4.1 Grounded Wye – Grounded Wye

4.4.2 Delta – Grounded Wye

4.4.3 Floating Wye – Delta

4.4.4 Other Common Connections

4.4.4.1 Delta – Delta

4.4.4.2 Open Wye – Open Delta

4.4.4.3 Other Suitable Connections

4.4.5 Neutral Stability with a Floating Wye

4.4.6 Sequence Connections of Three-Phase Transformers

4.5 Loadings

4.6 Losses

4.7 Network Transformers

4.8 Substation Transformers

4.9 Special Transformers

4.9.1 Autotransformers

4.9.2 Grounding Transformers

4.10 Special Problems

4.10.1 Paralleling

4.10.2 Ferroresonance

4.10.3 Switching Floating Wye – Delta Banks

4.10.4 Backfeeds

4.10.5 Inrush

References

5 Voltage Regulation

5.1 Voltage Standards

5.2 Voltage Drop

5.3 Regulation Techniques

5.3.1 Voltage Drop Allocation and Primary Voltage Limits

5.3.2 Load Flow Models

5.3.3 Voltage Problems

5.3.4 Voltage Reduction

5.4 Regulators

5.4.1 Line-Drop Compensation

5.4.1.1 Load-Center Compensation

5.4.1.2 Voltage-Spread Compensation

5.4.1.3 Effects of Regulator Connections

5.4.2 Voltage Override

5.4.3 Regulator Placement

5.4.4 Other Regulator Issues

5.5 Station Regulation

5.5.1 Parallel Operation

5.5.2 Bus Regulation Settings

5.6 Line Loss and Voltage Drop Relationships

References

6 Capacitor Application

6.1 Capacitor Ratings

6.2 Released Capacity

6.3 Voltage Support

6.4 Reducing Line Losses

6.4.1 Energy Losses

6.5 Switched Banks

6.6 Local Controls

6.7 Automated Controls

6.8 Reliability

6.9 Failure Modes and Case Ruptures

6.10 Fusing and Protection

6.11 Grounding

References

7 Faults

7.1 General Fault Characteristics

7.2 Fault Calculations

7.2.1 Transformer Connections

7.2.2 Fault Profiles

7.2.3 Effect of X/R Ratio

7.2.4 Secondary Faults

7.2.5 Primary-to-Secondary Faults

7.2.6 Underbuilt Fault to a Transmission Circuit

7.2.7 Fault Location Calculations

7.3 Limiting Fault Currents

7.4 Arc Characteristics

7.5 High-Impedance Faults

7.6 External Fault Causes

7.6.1 Trees

7.6.2 Weather and Lightning

7.6.3 Animals

7.6.4 Other External Causes

7.7 Equipment Faults

7.8 Faults in Equipment

7.9 Targeted Reduction of Faults

References

8 Short-Circuit Protection

8.1 Basics of Distribution Protection

8.1.1 Reach

8.1.2 Inrush and Cold-Load Pickup

8.2 Protection Equipment

8.2.1 Circuit Interrupters

8.2.2 Circuit Breakers

8.2.3 Circuit Breaker Relays

8.2.4 Reclosers

8.2.5 Expulsion Fuses

8.2.5.1 Fuse Cutouts

8.2.6 Current-Limiting Fuses

8.3 Transformer Fusing

8.4 Lateral Tap Fusing and Fuse Coordination

8.5 Station Relay and Recloser Settings

8.6 Coordinating Devices

8.6.1 Expulsion Fuse–Expulsion Fuse Coordination

8.6.2 Current-Limiting Fuse Coordination

8.6.3 Recloser–Expulsion Fuse Coordination

8.6.4 Recloser–Recloser Coordination

8.6.5 Coordinating Instantaneous Elements

8.7 Fuse Saving vs. Fuse Blowing

8.7.1 Industry Usage

8.7.2 Effects on Momentary and Sustained Interruptions

8.7.3 Coordination Limits of Fuse Saving

8.7.4 Long-Duration Faults and Damage with Fuse Blowing

8.7.5 Long-Duration Voltage Sags with Fuse Blowing

8.7.6 Optimal Implementation of Fuse Saving

8.7.7 Optimal Implementation of Fuse Blowing

8.8 Other Protection Schemes

8.8.1 Time Delay on the Instantaneous Element (Fuse Blowing)

8.8.2 High-Low Combination Scheme

8.3.3 SCADA Control of the Protection Scheme

8.8.4 Adaptive Control by Phases

8.9 Reclosing Practices

8.9.1 Reclose Attempts and Dead Times

8.9.2 Immediate Reclose

8.9.2.1 Effect on Sensitive Residential Devices

8.9.2.2 Delay Necessary to Avoid Retriggering Faults

8.9.2.3 Reclose Impacts on Motors

8.10 Single-Phase Protective Devices

8.10.1 Single-Phase Reclosers with Three-Phase Lockout

References

9 Reliability

9.1 Reliability Indices

9.1.1 Customer-Based Indices

9.1.2 Load-Based Indices

9.2 Storms and Weather

9.3 Variables Affecting Reliability Indices

9.3.1 Circuit Exposure and Load Density

9.3.2 Supply Configuration

9.3.3 Voltage

9.3.4 Long-Term Reliability Trends

9.4 Modeling Radial Distribution Circuits

9.5 Parallel Distribution Systems

9.6 Improving Reliability

9.6.1 Identify and Target Fault Causes

9.6.2 Identify and Target Circuits

9.6.3 Switching and Protection Equipment

9.6.4 Automation

9.6.5 Maintenance and Inspections

9.6.6 Restoration

9.6.7 Fault Reduction

9.7 Interruption Costs

References

10 Voltage Sags and Momentary Interruptions

10.1 Location

10.2 Momentary Interruptions

10.3 Voltage Sags

10.3.1 Effect of Phases

10.3.2 Load Response

10.3.3 Analysis of Voltage Sags

10.4 Characterizing Sags and Momentaries

10.4.1 Industry Standards

10.4.2 Characterization Details

10.5 Occurrences of Voltage Sags

10.5.1 Site Power Quality Variations

10.5.2 Transmission-Level Power Quality

10.6 Correlations of Sags and Momentaries

10.7 Factors That Influence Sag and Momentary Rates

10.7.1 Location

10.7.2 Load Density

10.7.3 Voltage Class

10.7.4 Comparison and Ranking of Factors

10.8 Prediction of Quality Indicators Based on Site Characteristics

10.9 Equipment Sensitivities

10.9.1 Computers and Electronic Power Supplies

10.9.2 Industrial Processes and Equipment

10.9.2.1 Relays and Contactors

10.9.2.2 Adjustable-Speed Drives

10.9.2.3 Programmable-Logic Controllers

10.9.3 Residential Equipment

10.10 Solution Options

10.10.1 Utility Options for Momentary Interruptions

10.10.2 Utility Options for Voltage Sags

10.10.2.1 Raising the Nominal Voltage

10.10.2.2 Line Reactors

10.10.3.2 Neutral Reactors

10.10.2.4 Current-Limiting Fuses

10.10.3 Utility Options with Nontraditional Equipment

10.10.3.1 Fast Transfer Switches

10.10.3.2 DVRs and Other Custom-Power Devices

10.10.4 Customer/Equipment Solutions

10.11 Power Quality Monitoring

References

11 Other Power Quality Issues

11.1 Overvoltages and Customer Equipment Failures

11.1.1 Secondary/Facility Grounding

11.1.2 Reclose Transients

11.2 Switching Surges

11.2.1 Voltage Magnification

11.2.2 Tripping of Adjustable-Speed Drives

11.2.3 Prevention of Capacitor Transients

11.3 Harmonics

11.3.1 Resonances

11.3.2 Telephone Interference

11.4 Flicker

11.4.1 Flicker Solutions

11.4.1.1 Load Changes

11.4.1.2 Series Capacitor

11.4.1.3 Static Var Compensator

11.4.1.4 Other Solutions

11.5 Voltage Unbalance

References

12 Lightning Protection

12.1 Characteristics

12.2 Incidence of Lightning

12.3 Traveling Waves

12.4 Surge Arresters

12.4.1 Ratings and Selection

12.4.2 Housings

12.4.3 Other Technologies

12.4.4 Isolators

12.4.5 Arrester Reliability and Failures

12.5 Equipment Protection

12.5.1 Equipment Insulation

12.5.2 Protective Margin

12.5.3 Secondary-Side Transformer Failures

12.6 Underground Equipment Protection

12.6.1 Open Point Arrester

12.6.2 Scout Arresters

12.6.3 Tapped Cables

12.6.4 Other Cable Failure Modes

12.7 Line Protection

12.7.1 Induced Voltages

12.7.2 Insulation

12.7.2.1 Practical Considerations

12.7.3 Shield Wires

12.7.4 Line Protection Arresters

12.8 Other Considerations

12.8.1 Role of Grounding

12.8.2 Burndowns

12.8.3 Crossarm and Pole Damage and Bonding

12.8.4 Arc Quenching of Wood

References

13 Grounding and Safety

13.1 System Grounding Configurations

13.1.1 Four-Wire Multigrounded Systems

13.1.2 Other Grounding Configurations

13.2 System Grounding and Neutral Shifts During Ground Faults

13.2.1 Neutral Shifts on Multigrounded Systems

13.2.2 Neutral Reactor

13.2.3 Overvoltages on Ungrounded Systems

13.3 Equipment/Customer Grounding

13.3.1 Special Considerations on Ungrounded Systems

13.3.2 Secondary Grounding Problems

13.4 Ground Rods and Other Grounding Electrodes

13.4.1 Soil Characteristics

13.4.2 Corrosion and Grounding Electrodes

13.4.3 Resistance Measurements

13.5 Shocks and Stray Voltages

13.5.1 Biological Models

13.5.2 Step and Touch Potentials

13.5.3 Stray Voltage

13.5.4 Tree Contacts

13.6 Protective Grounding

References

14 Distributed Generation

14.1 Characteristics of Distributed Generators

14.1.1 Energy Sources

14.1.2 Synchronous Generators

14.1.3 Induction Generators

14.1.4 Inverters

14.1.5 Modeling Small Generators

14.2 Islanding Issues

14.2.1 Effect of Transformer Connections on Overvoltages

14.2.1.1 Overvoltage Relays and 59G Ground Fault Detection

14.2.1.2 Effectively Grounding a Grounded-Wye – Grounded-Wye Transformer Connection

14.2.1.3 Sizing a Neutral Grounding Reactor on a Grounded-Wye – Delta Connection to Maintain Effective Grounding

14.2.2 Anti-Islanding Protection

14.2.3 Active Anti-Islanding

14.2.4 Relaying Issues

14.2.5 Self-Excitation

14.2.6 Ferroresonance

14.2.7 Backfeed to a Downed Conductor and Backfeed Voltages

14.3 Protection Issues

14.3.1 Tradeoff Between Overvoltages and Ground Fault Current

14.3.2 Fuse Saving Coordination

14.4 Power Quality Impacts

14.4.1 Voltage Regulation

14.4.2 Harmonics

14.4.3 Flicker

14.4.4 Other Impacts on Power Quality

14.4.5 High Quality Power Configurations

14.5 Generator Reliability

References

 

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Electrical Power Systems Quality

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

What is Power Quality?

Power Quality -- Voltage Quality

Why Are We Concerned About Power Quality?

The Power Quality Evaluation Procedure

Who Should Use This Book

Overview of the Contents

CHAPTER 2: TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Need for a Consistent Vocabulary

General Classes of Power Quality Problems

Transients

Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Short-Duration Voltage Variations

Voltage Imbalance

Waveform Distortion

Voltage Fluctuation

Power Frequency Variations

Power Quality Terms

Ambiguous Terms

CBEMA and ITI Curves

References

CHAPTER 3: VOLTAGE SAGS AND INTERRUPTIONS

Sources of Sags and Interruptions

Estimating Voltage Sag Performance

Fundamental Principles of Protection

Solutions at the End-User Level

Evaluating the Economics of Different Ride-Through Alternatives

Motor-Starting Sags

Utility System Fault-Clearing Issues

References

CHAPTER 4: TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGES

Sources of Transient Overvoltages

Principles of Overvoltage Protection

Devices for Overvoltage Protection

Utility Capacitor-Switching Transients

Utility System Lightning Protection

Managing Ferroresonance

Switching Transient Problems with Loads

Computer Tools for Transients Analysis

References

CHAPTER 5: FUNDAMENTALS OF HARMONICS

Harmonic Distortion

Voltage versus Current Distortion

Harmonics versus Transients

Harmonic Indexes

Harmonic Sources from Commercial Loads

Harmonic Sources from Industrial Loads

Locating Harmonic Sources

System Response Characteristics

Effects of Harmonic Distortion

Interharmonics

References

Bibliography

CHAPTER 6: APPLIED HARMONICS

Harmonic Distortion Evaluations

Principles for Controlling Harmonics

Where to Control Harmonics

Harmonic Studies

Devices for Controlling Harmonic Distortion

Harmonic Filter Design: A Case Study

Case Studies

Standards of Harmonics

References

Bibliography

CHAPTER 7: LONG-DURATION VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

Principles of Regulating the Voltage

Devices for Voltage Regulation

Utility Voltage Regulator Application

Capacitors for Voltage Regulation

End-User Capacitor Application

Regulating Utility Voltage with Distributed Resources

Flicker

References

Bibliography

CHAPTER 8: POWER QUALITY BENCHMARKING

Introduction

Benchmarking Process

RMS Voltage Variation Indices

Harmonics Indices

Power Quality Contracts

Power Quality Insurance

Power Quality State Estimation

Including Power Quality in Distribution Planning

References

Bibliography

CHAPTER 9: DISTRIBUTED GENERATION AND POWER QUALITY

Resurgence of DG

DG Technologies

Interface to the Utility System

Power Quality Issues

Operating Conflicts

DG on Distribution Networks

Siting DGDistributed Generation

Interconnection Standards

Summary

References

Bibliography

CHAPTER 10: WIRING AND GROUNDING

Resources

Definitions

Reasons for Grounding

Typical Wiring and Grounding Problems

Solutions to Wiring and Grounding Problems

Bibliography

CHAPTER 11: POWER QUALITY MONITORING

Monitoring Considerations

Historical Perspective of Power Quality Measuring Instruments

Power Quality Measurement Equipment

Assessment of Power Quality Measurement Data

Application of Intelligent Systems

Power Quality Monitoring Standards

References

Index

 

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Robust Control in Power Systems

1. INTRODUCTION

References

2. POWER SYSTEM OSCILLATIONS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Nature of electromechanical oscillations

2.2.1 Intraplant mode oscillations

2.2.2 Local plant mode oscillations

2.2.3 Interarea mode oscillations

2.2.4 Control mode oscillations

2.2.5 Torsional mode oscillations

2.3 Role of Oscillations in Power Blackouts

2.3.1 Oscillations in the WECC system

2.4 Summary

References

3. LINEAR CONTROL IN POWER SYSTEMS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Linear system analysis tools in power systems

3.2.1 Eigenvalue analysis

3.2.2 Modal controllability, observability and residue

3.2.3 Singular values and singular vectors

3.2.4 'Ft, and 7-t2 norm

3.2.5 Hankel singular values and model reduction

3.2.6 Stability, performance and robustness

3.2.7 Control design specifications in power systems

3.3 Summary

References

4. TEST SYSTEM MODEL

4.1 Overview of the test system

4.2 Models of different components

4.2.1 Generators

4.2.2 Excitation systems

4.2.3 Network power flow model

4.3 Modelling of FACTS devices

4.3.1 Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)

4.3.2 Static VAr compensator (SVC)

4.3.3 Thyristor controlled phase angle regulator (TCPAR)

4.4 Linearized system model

4.5 Choice of remote signals

4.6 Simplification of system model

References

5. POWER SYSTEM STABILIZERS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Basic Concept of PSS

5.3 Stabilizing signals for PSS

5.4 Structure of PSS

5.5 Methods of PSS design

5.5.1 Damping torque approach

5.5.2 Frequency response approach

5.5.3 Eigenvalue and state-space approach

5.5.4 Summary

References

6. MULTIPLE-MODEL ADAPTIVE CONTROL APPROACH

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Overview of MMAC strategy

Contents

6.2.1 Calculation of probability: Bayesian approach

6.2.2 Calculation of weights

6.3 Study system

6.4 Model bank

6.4.1 4-machine, 2-area system

6.4.2 16-machine, 5-area system

6.5 Control tuning and robustness testing

6.5.1 4-machine, 2-area system

6.5.2 16-machine, 5-area system

6.6 Test cases

6.6.1 Test case I

6.6.2 Test case 11

6.7 Choice of convergence factor and artificial cut-off

6.8 Simulation results with a 4-machine, 2-area study system

6.8.1 Test case I

6.8.2 Test case 11

6.9 Simulation results with a 16-machine, 5-area study system

6.9.1 Test case I

6.9.2 Test case IIa

6.9.3 Test case IIb

6.10 Summary

References

7. SIMULTANEOUS STABILIZATION

7.1 Eigen-Value-Distance Minimization

7.2 Robust pole-placement

7.3 Case study

7.4 Control design

7.5 Simulation results

7.6 Summary

References

8. MIXED-SENSITIVITY APPROACH USING LMI

8.1 Introduction

8.2 IFI, mixed-sensitivity formulation

8.3 Generalized 'H, problem with pole-placement

8.4 Matrix inequality formulation

8.5 Linearization of the matrix inequalities

8.6 Case study

8.6.1 Weight selection

8.6.2 Control design

8.6.3 Performance evaluation

8.6.4 Simulation results

8.7 Case study on sequential design

8.7.1 Test system

8.7.2 Control design

8.7.3 Performance evaluation

8.7.4 Simulation results

8.8 Summary

References

9. NORMALIZED '?f, LOOP-SHAPING USING LMI

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Design approach

9.2.1 Loop-shaping

9.2.2 Robust stabilization

9.3 Case study

9.3.1 Loop-shaping

9.3.2 Control Design

9.3.3 Simulation results

9.4 Summary

References

10. 'FI, CONTROL FOR TIME-DELAYED SYSTEMS

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Smith predictor for time-delayed or dead-time systems: and overview

10.3 Problem formulation using unified Smith predictor

10.4 Case study

10.4.1 Control design

10.4.2 Performance evaluation

10.4.3 Simulation results with TCSC

10.5 Simulation results with SVC

10.6 Summary

References

 

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